Maritime professional safety: prevention and legislation on personal injuries
on
board ships
K. X. Li, Zhang Shiping
Department
of Shipping and Transport Logistics
Hong
Kong Polytechnic University
Hung Hom
Kowloon
Hong Kong
Tel: 00852 2766 7919
Fax:
00852 2330 2704
Email: k.x.li@polyu.edu.hk
Maritime
safety includes ship safety and crew personal
safety. The
latter refers to maritime professional safety in this paper. A ship is a floating factory with
complex and dangerous machinery in a limited space, surrounded and often made
worse by heavy sea and bad weather,
upon which seafarers live and work. All these factors made seafaring one of the most dangerous occupations. In 1894, a study by the British Board of Trade showed
a mortality rate at 113 deaths
per thousand seafarers.
This was 9 times that of railway
employees, and 147 times that of factory and shop operatives [Larsson and
Lindquist, 1992]. This study aims to confirm whether the situation has been
improved over the years by using latest data and analysing the
pattern of mortality (including diseases) and injuries occurring to UK
seafarers. For
this purpose, data
on accidental mortality to worldwide seafarers was also obtained and analysed.
MATERIALS
AND METHODS
The
primary data on fatality and injury to UK seafarers has been collected from
publications of the UK authorities,
i.e.,
The Department of Trade (1962-88), and later The Marine Accident Investigation
Branch (MAIB) under The Department of Transport (1989-97). However, as to the injury pattern data is only
available from 1989 to 1997 (Table 1). The
data covers only seafarers working on UK registered ships, but not
including UK seafarers on non-UK registered ships. Data on accidental
mortality to worldwide seafarers has been collected from The Institute of
London Underwriters (ILU) covering 1977 to 1996.
As illustrated in Figure 1,
the safety culture of a fleet, which is reflected by competence of crew,
average age of ships, quality of management and trading pattern and other
unqualified factors, may affect both ship and crew safety. If a fleet has a
higher total loss rate, it is likely to be associated with some risk elements,
e.g., old age ships, incompetent crew, lack of safety culture in the company,
and lack of proper implementation of international standards etc, which would
also result in a higher number of crew accidents.
It
is a common conception that ship casualties, e.g, collisions, capsizing, and
fires/explosions, are the main sources of seafarers fatalities at sea.
Therefore, this study divides all the mortality cases into “ship casualties”
(category 1), personal accidents (category 2), and homicides and suicides (category
3), and diseases (category 4) according to their causes. Similarly, injury
cases are also categorised in accordance with their causes. Base on the
analyses, preventive measures and regulations are discussed according.
FATAL ACCIDENTS AND
MORTALITY TO UK SEAFARERS
The
study reveals 5,389 mortality cases to UK seafarers in a 27-year period
(1962-88), i.e., 200 per year. The mean mortality rate is 2.81‰ per year.
They can be divided into four categories
according to their causes as
defined in previous section.
The
first category is
caused by “ship casualties”, which includes founderings/floodings,
strandings/groundings, collisions/contacts, capsizings/listings, fires/explosions,
machinery damage, heavy weather, missing ships, and other casualties to ships.
Of 5,389 recognised mortality cases, 572 cases (10.61%) were caused by ship
casualties, 21 cases per year on average.
The
second category is
“personal accidents”, e.g., injuries sustained as a result of slips and
falls on and over board, during the operation of hatches and winches and other
machinery, using ropes and hawses exposure
to noxious substances and those reported as missing at sea. There are a total
of 1,749 cases falling into this category, at a mean of 65 per year, and
forming 33% of all mortality cases.
From
categories 1 and 2, one can derive a fatal accident number for each year,
which varies greatly from year to year, the lowest being 0.23‰ and the
highest 3.48‰, due to the fluctuations in the number of deaths arising from
ship casualties. For example, in 1985 when there was only 1 death due to ship
casualties, and 7 deaths due to personal accidents, the rate was only 0.23‰.
However, in 1987 when 39 deaths were due to ship casualties, 47 deaths were
due to personal accidents, the rate rose to 3.48‰. Since fatal accident
rates show such a wide variation, the 27-year mean annual rate has been
calculated at 1.28‰, so that comparisons can be made with other industries.
Compared with other UK high risk industries (1959-64) [Shilling, 1966], the
mean of fatal accident rates to seafarers is higher than that of fishing (1.00‰),
3 times that of coal-mining (0.44 ‰), 5.5 times that of the construction
industry (0.23‰), and 25 times that of the manufacturing industry (0.05 ‰).
This gives some indication of the hazards of seafaring. However, the
comparison would be more convincing if mortality rates to other industries
covered the same period as this study (1962-88).
The third category of cause is
as result of “suicide
and homicide” incidents. Totals of 348 suicide cases were identified;
i.e., an average of 13 cases per year, giving an mean annual suicide rate of
0.16 ‰. This may suggest the stressful nature of conditions at sea. A person
distressed to the extent of committing suicide certainly would not be able to
perform his duty or function properly, and
could even become a hazard to safety. However, it should be noted that the
numbers of both suicides and homicides have consistently fallen over the years,
which may be attributable to the improvement in working and living conditions
on board ships and the declining number of UK seafarers working on UK
ships.
The fourth category is mortality
from “diseases”. 2,640 mortality cases, or 49% of the total, were
identified as the result of diseases, an average of 98 per year. There
is no information in the data obtained as to the details of illnesses and
diseases leading to the demise of seafarers. Studies [UKCS, 1994;
Wickramatillake, 1997], however, showed that Chronicle
Heart Diseases (CHD)
was the principal natural cause of death among seafarers, and suggested the
proportion of deaths from this cause is higher than in other occupations
because of extensive stress and fatigue on board ships. Some studies tend to
show that the incidence of lung cancer among engine room crew was higher than
among other crew [Hansen and Petersen, 1990; Pukkala, 1996]. Pukkala [1996]
has also shown increases in the incidence of skin cancers (both melanoma and
non-melanoma) among younger seafarers. Other illnesses such as
gastro-intestinal diseases, respiratory infections, skin diseases,
cardio-vascular diseases, venereal diseases and dental cavities were also
observed among seafarers [Braida, 1989]. Mental illnesses of various kinds and
severity have also been reported as important [Barnes, 1981].
MORTALITY
TO WORLDWIDE SEAFARERS
Worldwide
data on merchant ships, e.g., numbers of ships, sizes, types, numbers of new
building and accidental total losses, have been available since 1934, with the
establishment of the Society of Lloyd’s Register [Farthing, 1993]. Complete
data on the employment of seafarers is still not available on a worldwide
scale, and not even at national levels in some maritime nations. In 1997, the
number of seafarers in the UK, a traditional maritime nation, was based on
estimates [McConville, 1998]. Calculations of maritime labour supply and
demand are based on questionnaires [BIMCO/ISF, 1990, 1995]. The fatalities and
injuries to seafarers worldwide have to be approximated based on data from an individual fleet [Goss, 1991; Li,
KX, 1998].
ILU
is the only source that keeps records of fatalities to worldwide seafarers as
results of ship casualties, but not including deaths from personal accidents,
suicides and homicides, and diseases. An estimation of mortality to worldwide
seafarers from all causes would be valuable for both academic and practical
purposes. As to fatalities from ships casualties (category 1), studies show
that seafarers fatalities are highly correlated with ship casualties [Li,
1998]
but no correlation with category
2, category 3, and category
4 [Nielsen and Roberts, 1998].
Based
on ILU figures (on deaths
from ship casualties,
category 1) and the
mortality pattern of UK seafarers, mortality from all causes to worldwide seafarers can be estimated.
The mean of annual accident deaths is at
2,816, which
giving a fatal accident
rate of 3.30‰. It is this believed would be more reliable than Li’s [1998]
2,431 and Goss etl’s [1991]
13,555 since the latter
results are purely estimated
from ship total losses.
Similarly, mortality
of all causes to worldwide seafarers can
be estimated at 6,471 per
year.
With the number of worldwide seafarers at service, which Li and Wonham [1999]
estimated at about 1,042,998 in 1996, the
mean annual fatal accident rate is 3.30‰ and the mean annual mortality rate
7.6‰, can be calculated. These are about 2.5 times higher than respectively to those
of UK
seafarers.
MAIN CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS TO UK
SEAFARERS (1989-97)
Not
all causes of accidents are recorded in details in the data collected. However,
a total of 3,559 accidents
(both fatal and non-fatal) were identified for a 9-year period (1989-97) (see
Table 1). The accidents to seafarers were noticed to have declined
consistently during the past nine years. This may be as a result of the
increase of safety awareness. However, annual accident rates have remained
between 2.47% to 3.33% per year. The
top three categories of accidents are “slips and falls”, “manual
handling” and “machine operations”, forming 85% of the total accidents
identified.
Slips
and falls
From
the data obtained, it is clear that accidents caused by “slips and falls”
constitute 46.19% of all 3,559 cases during the 9-year survey period
(1989-97). The high proportion of slip and fall accidents are to a large
extent due to the slippery decks, and often made worse by seawater, ice, and
the rolling and pitching movements of ships under heavy weather. The following
measures were suggested to prevent injuries from slips and falls [MCA, 1998]:
*
Slip-resistant soles should be worn at all times;
*
Decks, and particularly stairs, should be regularly
inspected and maintained so that cracks and worn areas do not cause a trip
hazard;
*
Decks and gratings should be kept clear of from grease,
rubbish and ice etc., to avoid slipping. Any spillage should be cleaned up
immediately;
*
The area of deck immediately outside the entrance to
refrigerated rooms should have an anti-slip surface;
*
Care should always be taken when using stairs and
companionways; one hand should always be kept free to grasp handrails, and
carrying heavy objects needing both hands which prevents proper use of
handrails should be avoided;
*
Trays, crates, cartons etc should not be carried in
such a fashion that sills, storm steps or other obstructions in the path are
obscured from view.
Manual
handling This
type of accidents includes any transport or supporting of a load, lifting,
putting down, pushing, pulling, carrying or moving by hand or by bodily force
[MCA, 1998]. Manual handling accidents form the second largest group, i.e.,
20% of the total accidents identified. It is easy to strain muscles when
manual handling. However, pulled muscles may be avoided if proper lifting
techniques are used. Relating to this type of injuries, the following advice
would be appropriate. First, use any mechanical aids possible. Second, always
follow instructions and, last but not least, take sensible precautions to be
aware of risks of being injured from manual handling.
Machine
operation Injuries
relating to machine operation constitute the third largest category, i.e., 19%
of the total cases. There are various kinds of machines on board ship, which
may become hazardous to seafarers if not being properly used or guarded.
Education always plays a vital role for injury prevention from machine
operations as well as from other sources.
LEGISLATION
FOR THE HEALTH AND SAFETY OF SEAFARERS
The
international nature of seafaring requires a unification of practice in health
and safety in national legislation, in which the IMO and the ILO play vital
roles. The ILO is an UN specialised agency, which has wide-ranging legislation
concerning the health and safety of seafarers – about 50 conventions and
recommendations. Therefore, it may be worth a brief examination of these
conventions, and their implication to seafarer safety.
States
are required to prescribe measures for the prevention, control of and
protection against occupational hazards in the working environment due to air
pollution, noise and vibration (Art.4, ILO Con.148). The Prevention of
Accidents (Seafarers) Convention, 1970, suggests that national legislation
should lay down compulsory provisions for the prevention of occupational
accidents in maritime employment (Arts. 4 and 7). Governments of member states
are required to ensure that occupational accidents are reported, investigated
and their causes analysed (Arts 1, 2 and 4, ILO Con.134). Specific and useful
measures for preventing accidents on board ship are required, for example, the
posting of notices and other publications. A suitable person or a committee
should be appointed by the competent authority for accident prevention and air
pollution, noise and vibration (Art. 7, ILO Con.134, and Art. 15, ILO
Con.148), and the supervision, inspection and the imposing of sanctions to
ensure the application of accident prevention provisions (Art. 6, ILO
Con.134).
Medical
examinations are a means of protecting individual seafarers from exposure to
the risks of work at sea. The ILO Medical Examination (Seafarers) Convention
provides that no persons should be engaged on board ship unless they have
obtained a certificate attesting to their fitness for the work in which they
are to be employed, signed by an approved medical practitioner (Art.3).
It
is clear from the above examination that ILO conventions cover various topics
relating to the health and safety of seafarers. However, a gap is noted in the
area of implementing these useful regulations. As at 31 December 1996, of all
180 conventions (including non-maritime conventions) adopted by the ILO, 19
conventions have not entered into force. The average age of these 19
conventions is 40.3 years. The oldest (69 years) is the ILO Convention No. 31,
Hours of Work Convention, which was adopted in 1931. Some of these conventions
may never enter into force. The average number of years from adoption of the
convention to the date of into force is 2.3 years. Taking into account the
time spending on drafting, it would be much longer.
Of
47 seafarers related conventions, only two conventions are implemented in more
70 states, i.e., 40% of 174 ILO member states – the Minimum Age Convention
(70 states) and Medical Examination Convention (79 states). Other 45
regulations have been implemented in less than 64 states, implementation rates
less than 40%. 21 have been implemented in less than 17 states, i.e., less
than 10% of all member states. 3 have been implemented in no state at all. The
average implementation ratio is only 14%.
The
IMO is another UN specialised agency of with global responsibility for
regulating maritime transport. The IMO has promoted the adoption of over 40
different conventions and resolutions. This
study shows that personal accidents form 33% of all mortality cases, i.e.,
three times the number of mortality cases caused by ship casualties. This
shows prevention of personal accidents on board ship should be given on a
higher priority. However, it is noted that the IMO is not concerned with
personal injuries on board ship. The IMO conventions covers all the technical
aspects of shipping, including: Navigation; Ship design and equipment;
Stability and load lines; Search and rescue; Life-saving appliances; Carriage
of dangerous goods; Carriage of chemicals cargoes; Fire safety; Marine
pollution; Pollution by other noxious or hazardous cargoes; Seafarers training
and certification; Quality and safety management; Responsibilities of flag
states and port states; and Anti-piracy. However, these regulations are
usually made as reactions to certain events rather than being the result of a
complete analysis of the whole situation, with too little concern for
individual crew member accidents, which, as the study shows, can amount to a
large number. It appears that a maritime disaster kills 100 persons at one
time will give rise to possible concern, whilst 100 accidents each which kills
one person through a period of time draw little attention.
Among
177 ILO member countries [ILO, 1997], the UK have a better record on
implementation of ILO conventions. As at 31 December 1996, the UK has ratified
80 ILO convention, above the average of 71. Proper implementation of safety
regulations may give a suggestion on the downward trend in seafarers
accidents. However, the link between proper implementation of safety
regulations and seafarers accidents can not be proved by the data obtained,
and could be a topic for further exploration.
CONCLUSION
The
study confirms that seafaring profession is still one of the most dangerous
professions. However, situation has been much improved due to implementation
of safety regulations on board ships. Personal accidents on board ship form 33% of all mortality cases, i.e.,
three times the number of mortality cases caused by ship casualties. This
shows that prevention of personal accidents on board ship should be given a
higher priority and proper implementation of IMO and ILO
legislation worldwide
would improve safety to seafarers.
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Figure 1 Safety culture with ship and crew
accidents
The
Safety culture of
a fleet (indicator:
total losses)
Crew
& ships
Ships
accidents
25%
(33%)
Management
(67%)
Source: Li and Wonham [2000], Figure 5.1 at page 118
Table
1 Analysis of Accidents to seafarers (1989-97) a
|
type |
slip/ fall |
manual handling |
machine operation |
rope/ hawse |
hit
by object |
noxious substance |
electric shock |
fire/ explosion |
Collision & stranding |
other accident |
total |
Popula-tion
b |
rate
(%) |
|
1989 |
212 |
105 |
104 |
30 |
32 |
13 |
2 |
1 |
1 |
80 |
500 |
20958 |
2.39 |
|
1990 |
239 |
106 |
93 |
41 |
20 |
8 |
4 |
4 |
1 |
74 |
516 |
18289 |
2.82 |
|
1991 |
239 |
86 |
90 |
31 |
21 |
4 |
6 |
1 |
1 |
85 |
479 |
16005 |
2.99 |
|
1992 |
181 |
89 |
72 |
24 |
13 |
4 |
8 |
0 |
1 |
56 |
392 |
14118 |
2.78 |
|
1993 |
154 |
54 |
75 |
18 |
23 |
12 |
3 |
1 |
1 |
65 |
341 |
13351 |
2.55 |
|
1994 |
158 |
77 |
70 |
16 |
18 |
3 |
4 |
0 |
0 |
58 |
346 |
12837 |
2.70 |
|
1995 |
142 |
54 |
53 |
12 |
17 |
12 |
9 |
2 |
0 |
38 |
301 |
12175 |
2.47 |
|
1996 |
166 |
69 |
59 |
25 |
30 |
4 |
9 |
2 |
0 |
31 |
364 |
11043 |
3.30 |
|
1997 |
153 |
64 |
57 |
16 |
19 |
6 |
3 |
1 |
1 |
21 |
320 |
11044 |
2.90 |
|
Total |
1644 |
704 |
673 |
213 |
193 |
66 |
48 |
12 |
6 |
508 |
3559 |
129820 |
24.89 |
|
mean |
183 |
78 |
75 |
24 |
21 |
7 |
5 |
1 |
1 |
56 |
395 |
14424 |
2.77 |
|
% |
46.19 |
19.78 |
18.91 |
5.98 |
5.42 |
1.85 |
1.35 |
0.34 |
0.17 |
14.27 |
100 |
|
|
Sources:
MAIB [1989-97].